Wherever we are, we would all like to think that our classrooms are “intellectually active” places. Progressive learning environments. Highly effective and conducive to student-centered learning.
The reality is that there is no single answer because it is difficult to view teaching and learning as single events or individual “things.”
So we put together a vision of the characteristics of a highly effective classroom through the idea of conditions. They can act as a kind of yardstick against which to compare your own: see if you notice a pattern.
Read more below.
Structure
A Conditions-Based Model for Highly Effective Learning Environments
A research-based template for diagnosing learning environments and guiding the design of lessons, units, and programs in K-12 settings.
Abstract
Research on learning suggests that effective classrooms are shaped less by isolated strategies and more by the conditions under which learning occurs. This model identifies five interacting conditions:clarity, challenge, support, agencyand reflection—that limit or enable the quality, depth, and durability of learning.
Definition
What does “conditions” mean in this model
TO condition It is a factor that allows or limits the quality, depth and durability of learning, regardless of the strategies or programs used.
Conditions are not activities or techniques. They shape what is possible. When a condition is weak or misaligned, learning is limited even when instruction appears strong.
| Condition | Operational meaning (what should be made possible) |
|---|---|
| Clarity
Address |
Shared understanding of purpose and success criteria so that learners can regulate effort and interpret feedback. |
| Challenge
Cognitive demand |
Cognitive demand that requires reasoning and productive struggle rather than mere accomplishment. |
| Support
Persistence |
Persistence through difficulty through feedback, scaffolding, and a psychologically safe environment. |
| Agency
Property |
Ownership and motivation through meaningful influence on learning. |
| Reflection
Transfer |
Transfer, metacognition, and lasting understanding beyond a single task. |
Conditions matrix: challenge × support
The effectiveness of learning does not depend solely on challenge or support, but on how they interact.
Let’s read it as a model: the improvement comes from the change of conditions towards the upper right quadrant, not from the increase of a single factor in isolation.
Clarity
Address
what clarity is
Clarity It is a shared understanding of purpose and success in learning: what is learned, why it is important, and what quality looks like. In effective environments, clarity is not something the teacher possesses, it is something that students can articulate, use, and act on.
Why clarity is important (mechanism)
Clarity functions as a directional constraint. When goals and success criteria are explicit, students are better able to regulate their effort, interpret feedback, and persist through challenges.
Indicators
- Students can explain the learning objective in their own words.
- Students can describe what quality work looks like before completing the task.
- Questions focus on improvement and meaning rather than point values.
- Students use criteria to evaluate work with reasonable accuracy.
Failure modes
- Students mainly ask procedural questions (e.g., grades, points, steps).
- Completion is confused with understanding.
- Comments are ignored or treated as arbitrary.
- Students depend on teacher approval rather than internal criteria.
Research anchors: Black and William (1998); Hattie (2009)
Challenge
Cognitive demand
What challenge is it?
Challenge It is the level of cognitive demand necessary to advance in learning. It reflects how much reasoning, problem solving, and understanding a task requires, not how busy or difficult it seems.
Why the challenge is important (mechanism)
The challenge functions as a cognitive constraint. Tasks that are too simple produce little growth; Tasks that exceed available support increase avoidance. Learning is strengthened through a calibrated productive struggle to be prepared.
Indicators
- Tasks require explanation, justification or problem solving.
- Students struggle with ideas, not just procedures.
- Mistakes are treated as part of learning and reviewed.
- Time is allocated for thinking, not just completing.
Failure modes
- The work emphasizes retrieval, formatting, or compliance.
- Students finish quickly with minimal understanding.
- Rigor is confused with workload more than with thought.
- Engagement may be high, but learning stagnates.
Research anchors: Vygotsky (1978); Bransford et al. (2000)
Support
Persistence
what support is
Support It includes the scaffolding and emotional conditions that allow students to persist through difficulties. Support does not eliminate rigor; sustains it through feedback, review and psychological safety.
Why support is important (mechanism)
The support functions as a persistence constraint. When students experience challenges without support, effort turns into failure. When there is support, students are more willing to take risks, revise thinking, and persist.
Indicators
- The feedback is timely, specific and actionable.
- Review is expected, not optional.
- Errors are treated as information and not failure.
- Students seek help without stigma.
Failure modes
- Feedback comes too late to influence learning.
- Mistakes are penalized rather than examined.
- Students disconnect when faced with difficulties.
- Excessive scaffolding eliminates cognitive demand.
Research anchors: Black and William (1998); Darling-Hammond et al. (2020)
Agency
Property
What agency is it?
Agency It is the student’s sense of ownership and influence over learning. Agency is not an unlimited choice; It is a significant participation within certain limitations.
Why agency (mechanism) is important
Agency functions as a motivational constraint. Students persist and engage more deeply when they experience autonomy, competence, and purpose. Without agency, clarity and challenge often produce compliance rather than investment.
Indicators
- Students ask substantive questions that shape learning.
- Students make meaningful decisions about the process or product.
- Curiosity and initiative become visible over time.
- Students take responsibility for improving.
Failure modes
- Students wait for instructions instead of thinking independently.
- Choice exists only on a superficial level.
- Commitment depends on external rewards.
- Learning feels more procedural than purposeful.
Research anchors: Deci and Ryan (2000)
Reflection
Transfer
what is reflection
Reflection It refers to opportunities for students to review ideas, examine thinking, and connect learning in contexts. Reflection transforms activity into learning and increases transfer beyond a single task.
Why reflection is important (mechanism)
Reflection functions as a transfer constraint. Without it, learning remains task-bound and short-lived. Students improve when they analyze errors, review work, and articulate their understanding.
Indicators
- Students revise work based on feedback.
- Students explain how their thinking has changed.
- Connections are established between tasks and contexts.
- Previous learning is deliberately reviewed.
Failure modes
- The same mistakes are repeated in all tasks.
- Feedback does not lead to improvements.
- Learning fades quickly after assessment.
- The transfer is rare and accidental.
Research anchors: Bransford et al. (2000)
References
- Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and learning in the classroom. Evaluation in Education5(1), 7-74.
- Bransford, JD, Brown, AL, & Cocking, RR (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: brain, mind, experience and school. National Academy Press.
- Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., and Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied developmental science24(2), 97-140.
- Deci, EL and Ryan, RM (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuit: Human needs and behavioral self-determination. Psychological research11(4), 227-268.
- Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 achievement-related meta-analyses.. Rutledge.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). The mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
You can also find a related graphic we created in 2015 below, for some additional ideas that aren’t strictly research-based.
